Physical Education Association - United Kingdom centenary conference abstracts 1999
University of Bath, 8-11 April, 1999
Physical education teachers and their careers
Kathleen M. Armour, Brunel University, England
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Physical education has low status in schools!' Supporting evidence for this statement can be found internationally, historically and currently. In some recent research, low status was described as 'an intractable problem for physical education' (Armour and Jones, 1998, p.134). It seems clear, therefore, that it this is likely to be a major issue which influences the ways in which physical education teachers are able to plan and build their careers. This paper draws upon life-story research with practising physical education teachers to explore the ways in which teachers manage their status difficulties. Questions are raised about the strategies that we, the physical education profession, have used to support our bids for higher status. In addition, some concerns are raised about the role of the wider education community which, it is claimed, has systematically undermined physical education. Finally, the implications for physical education teachers and their careers are discussed and some suggestions are made which might underpin teachers' career-building processes.
Beyond romantic views of the self: Critical autobiography as a challenge to teacher development
Andrew C. Sparkes, University of Exeter, England
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Atkinson and Silverman (1997) note how the collection and celebration of personal narratives has become a major preoccupation for many in the social sciences and that there is a widespread assumption that such data provide uniquely privileged means of access to the biographically grounded experiences and meanings of social actors. These assumptions, Atkinson (1997) suggested, have endorsed a vulgar realism along with a romanticised view of the self among those who pursue autobiographical forms of inquiry. Against this backdrop, and drawing upon examples of life history research that has focused upon physical education teachers, I reflect upon the manner in which this form of inquiry has been shaped by the meta-narratives of humanism and developmentalism. I then advance the case for engaging physical educators in critical autobiographical work that, according to Jackson (1990), refuses the myth of a unitary self in favour of acknowledging the self as fragmented, multiple, in process, continually renewed and reinvented; rethinks the relationships between past, present and future; challenges chronological and linear tellings; problematises issues of voice and authenticity; refuses the split between the personal and the social; and highlights the potential for political agency, resistance and contestation while simultaneously acknowledging underlying structural relations of power and subordination that shape the conventions of story telling, listening, and understanding.
New agendas for the new millennium?
Dawn Penney, De Montfort University, England
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This paper addresses what have emerged as the 'new agendas' in the revision of the National Curriculum as a whole, and the National Curriculum for Physical Education in England specifically. The implications of likely changes to the statutory orders are discussed in relation to the design and delivery of physical education curricula as we approach the 21st century. What changes are required, desired and desirable in physical education in schools? Challenges are posed for both teachers and teacher educators if physical education is to play a proactive role in the development of caring and equitable communities and societies in which all children feel valued. The ways in which the revision of the National Curriculum will affect physical education teachers' lives and careers, and the nature of the professional development that should, and is likely to, arise in response to the revisions to physical education will be discussed.
Opportunities for learning experienced by a group of PGCE students in their school based work.
Peter Breckon - Brunel University, England
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As students on a one year PGCE course spend two-thirds of their time in school, that time must be used effectively to enhance their development as teachers. In order to develop the knowledge, skills and understanding required to meet the Standards to gain qualified teacher status, students need to teach lessons, be observed and receive feedback. However, they also require other opportunities for learning, e.g. to enable them to learn from other teachers, to consider different approaches to teaching and learning and therefore to become more than just technician teachers. These other learning opportunities in school include observation by the student of their mentor or other experienced teachers, collaborative planning of lessons, team teaching, discussion of observations by the student and of teaching and learning more generally, e.g. different ways of teaching an activity depending on the learning outcomes.
A study in 1997/98 with one group of PGCE students looked at the amount of time and the perceived value of a range of learning opportunities in school. Results showed that most time was spent in schools on students being observed teaching by their mentors or other experienced teachers and being given feedback on their teaching. Relatively little time was spent on other learning opportunities. However, some of the other learning opportunities were perceived as very valuable by students. In this paper some of the possible reasons for these results are explored, along with some initial discussion about the implications of a balance in school-based work towards students teaching for a large proportion of their time; about whether changes should be made to the balance of time spent by students in school and, if so, how this may be initiated.
Physical activity promotion in schools: Physical education.Teachers views.
Lorraine Cale - Loughborough University, England
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The role of the school in the promotion of physical activity has attracted increased interest in recent years and physical education (PE) teachers are undoubtedly seen as key players in efforts to promote physical activity to young people. Despite this, little is know about their views and understanding of physical activity promotion. This study therefore investigated PE teachers' views and understanding of physical activity promotion. Questionnaires were completed by 42 secondary school PE Heads of Department (PEHoDs) in central England and follow-up interviews were conducted with a small sample of the PEHoDs (n=9). Survey and interview questions covered a range of contexts for physical activity promotion in school including the PE curriculum (including health related exercise (HRE)) and the informal and hidden curriculum.
PEHoDs were generally found to have positive views towards physical activity promotion and HRE in schools. There was strong consensus of the need to promote physical activity and most of the PEHoDs who were interviewed reported to be promoting it through their curricular (HRE) and extra-curricular programmes. However, only 40% of schools had a written policy for the promotion of physical activity. Furthermore, the interviews revealed that a number of PEHoDs had a rather limited understanding of physical activity promotion and how it could be approached in their school. A number of constraints to promoting physical activity were also identified such as a lack of time, finance, support and liaison. It was concluded that, for physical education teachers to have a real and lasting impact on young people's physical activity behaviour, they need to be encouraged and supported to adopt a broader view and understanding of physical activity promotion and of their role within it.
Teaching cricket under sport education: An Australian perspective.
Alex Cameron and Andrew Taggart - Edith Cowan University, Australia
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This presentation will outline the sport education curriculum model, briefly report on the findings of the Sport Education in Physical Education Programme (SEPEP) Cricket Project and discuss teachers' perceptions of teaching cricket using SEPEP. Game modification for use in primary and secondary schools will be demonstrated. The project commenced in 1997 - Stage 1; implementation, Stage 2 (1998) - Next Step; Stage 3 (1999) - School Community Links.
SEPEP is a collaborative student centred approach to teaching sport in primary and secondary physical education programmes. In SEPEP:
- Teachers share managerial and instructional duties with the students;
- Students are players on matched, mixed ability teams in a formal schedule of competition;
- The programme is extended over a minimum 16 session season;
- Records are kept and publicised;
- Students assume ownership and responsibility through additional roles to that of player;
- Game rules and team sizes are modified;
- A festive end of season event it organised.
SEPEP encouraged teachers to see cricket as a sport for boys and girls and was seen as an effective curriculum model for the teaching of sport in physical education. The learning outcomes generated under SEPEP were seen to be superior to previous programmes especially in relation to umpiring, game administration/organisation and coaching. Several teachers provided for a range of cross-curricular outcomes to be achieved. All teachers endorsed the modified games used during SEPEP seasons. SEPEP had a strong impact on students' feelings about cricket. Students indicated they enjoyed the programme, learned a lot more, increased their interest in playing cricket outside school and suggested the need for more modified games to be offered in community cricket competitions.
In the practical session delegates will be able to participate in skill development activities and modified cricket games that have been proven to be successful in primary and secondary schools.
*SEPEP Cricket was funded by the Australian Cricket Board-Junior Development Committee.
Identities and subcultrues in relation to sport: An analysis of teenage girls' magazines.
Claudia Cockburn - Southampton University
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This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the references to sport in current issues of four teenage girls' magazines. Attention is directed towards the negative stereotyping surrounding females in support, the risks girls' face on entering the sporting domain, and the trivialization of involvement in sport, whether of females or males. The young readers of these magazines are faced by contradictions, which are explored here in the light of recent theories of teenage girls' subcultures and processes of identity formation. 'Sportyness', in these popular publications, is represented as incompatible with heterosexual desirability. The paper concludes by stressing the need for alternative discursive practices on the part of editors, the PE profession and others, that would encourage teenage girls and young women to develop a stronger sense of self, and empower them to define themselves autonomously.
Personal development, health and physical education in context: Muslim and Catholic perspectives.
Neil Davidson - University of Western Sydney
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This research examines potential barriers to learning Personal Development, Health and Physical Education (PDHPE) in schools characterised by religious diversity. Year 9 students at four high schools were surveyed (N=362, m=156, f=206). Participants completed a self report instrument designed to reflect key components of the PDHPE curriculum. Exploratory factor analysis produced five scales which were then used to examine the similarities and differences in attitudes towards PDHPE between Muslin (N=125) and Catholic (N=153) background students. While most respondents valued the PDHPE programme, there were a number of important differences in attitudes between the Muslim and the Catholic groups. More of the Muslim group were concerned that cultural values made it difficult to engage in PDHPE related activities than the Catholic group. Up to 40% of Muslim students have problems with issues such as dress, public display, independence and cultural values and the PDHPE programme. More Muslim respondents agreed that personal development topics should be the responsibility of the family and not the school, and fewer agreed that PDHPE should include birth control and aids education. Fewer Muslim students were in favour of mixed-sex activities and fewer Muslim Students appeared to value and like the PDHPE programme. These results were replicated when Arabic language background was controlled. These differences may act as barriers to the successful teaching and learning of PDHPE in these schools.
Subject content knowledge of PGCE PE student teachers during their first school placement.
Will Katene and Ray Godfrey - Canterbury Christ Church University College, Enlgand
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Research findings suggest that a key concern of PGCE PE student teachers in their development as teachers is subject content knowledge (SCK). The purpose of this study was to find out (1) how much SCK PE student teachers develop during their first school placement; (2) how they develop their SCK; and (3) what the impact of the development of SCK is on their teaching.
A questionnaire was administered to twenty-three PE student teachers on two separate occasions; at the beginning and end of their first serial experience/block school placement (11 weeks) on their one year PGCE course. Respondents were asked specific questions relating to their level of SCK across the six areas of activity in the NCPE, and in GCSE PE and A level PE. They indicated their level of SCK using the following scale: 1 = very good knowledge, 2 = good knowledge, 3 = enough knowledge to get by, 4 = a little knowledge, and 5 = no knowledge.
The data will be analysed to determine how much SCK student teachers develop by the end of their first school placement. Secondly, how they develop this SCK, and thirdly, the impact of SCK on their teaching.
The importance of physical education and regualr exercise for young people with insulin dependent diabetes melitus.
Elizabeth Marsden - Canterbury Christ Church University College
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Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or type 1 diabetes ranks as the most common childhood disease in developed nations (McCarty and Zimme, 1994). It has an onset below the age of 21 years and most teachers of Physical Education in the UK are likely to have several young people in their schools with IDDM at any specified period of time. Conceptually it is a simple disorder that is due to the inability of the pancreatic ß-cells of the Islets of Langerhans to produce insulin. This, however, has a profound effect on the homeostasis of the body. The balance between carbohydrate intake, insulin administered into the blood stream and exercise taken needs careful juggling in the young person with diabetis. Having insulin dependent diabetes will affect a young person's life physically, pyschologically and socially. S/he will become three times more susceptible to a cardiovascular event, even at a young age (Tomlinson, 1991). The threat of future diabetes complications and facing the daily diabetes regime often leads to anxiety, depression and increased stress levels (Lustman, 1992; Gonder-Fredereick et al., 1989). Some young people, especially teenagers, find diabetes to be a blow to their healthy self-image (LaGreca, Rapaport and Skyler, 1991). The Physical Education teacher, in turn, may feel anxiety at his/her lack of knowledge and ability to cope safely with pupils with IDDM.
Research into the effects of regular and appropriate physical activity for clinical and non-clinical populations has shown improvements in cardiovascular status for both young and older people (Pate et al, 1995). Biddle and Mutrie (1991) have collected and analysed many research findings which show positive improvements in psychological states such as anxiety, depression, stress reactivity and poor self-esteem for those becoming regular exercisers. Lip service is paid to the value of exercise for people with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus by the major national Diabetes Associations but research has, to date, largely consisted only of attempts to reduce blood glucose levels through physical activity; the results of which have been somewhat contradictory. The author's research investigated both physical and psychological effects of exercise on youngsters with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and has studied appropriate adjustments required for safe and enjoyable participation in Physical Education sessions.
Physical Education teachers receive little training about the important role they have in promoting, monitoring and supporting activity levels of young people with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. This presentation seeks to supply the knowledge, confidence and inspiration to teachers so that these youngsters remain safely and enjoyably active for their present and future health and well-being.
Sherborne development movement for all children.
Elizabeth Marsden - Canterbury Christ Church University College
Carolyn Childs - Education Consultant and OFSTED Inspection Service, Surrey, England
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Veronica Sherborne trained as a Physical Education teacher and a Physiotherapist. Her work was mostly influenced by Laban and when she began to teach profoundly handicapped children, she used Laban's Movement analysis as the basis for her adaptive Physical Education and Movement. She also intertwined those skills learned as a mother of three children as they progressed through their natural motor stages and as they interacted through the medium of physical play. Veronica's premis was twofold: that each child must learn to be at home in his/her own body and that each child should learn to form relationships.
Developmental Movement has grown from Veronica's early pioneering and has been used with children and adults with many types of special needs and has also been used as a way of breaking down barriers in work and team building situations with adults. It has been used as the basis of confidence building with a group of University students with exam-phobia as well as in both primary and secondary schools for improving body, space and dynamics awareness and relationship building. It addresses one of the most fundamental factors in Physical Education; that of mastering one's own body weight, size, ability and capacity for expression and communication. The relationship building that proceeds naturally from working with Developmental Movement has shown significant positive changes in students' moods states as measured by POMS.
This presentations will use video footage from Sherborne's film "Good Companions" and photographs from her archives.
'Examining' the changing nature of PE teachers' work.
Gareth Nutt - Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education, England
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This paper intends to draw attention to one of the ways in which some physical education teachers have responded to the micropolitical tensions and contradictions that exist within a subject that has never really been at ease with itself. It does so by presenting a critique of how some physical education teachers, as members of a marginal occupational sub-culture, have endeavoured to use examinations as a means of accommodating the forces of change during a prolonged period of substantial educational reform. It responds to Evans' (1986) view that there remains a good deal of scope for studies that focus upon the social and political origins of a subject that has emerged as a "loose amalgam of segments pursuing different objectives in different manners and more or less delicately held together under a common name at particular periods in history" (Bucher and Strauss 1971, cited by Evans 1986, p.27).
The issues advanced have been generated from interviews and focused discussions, with teachers and qualifying teachers as well as the privileged 'insider' insight of teaching physical education in schools and in Higher education. Thus, this paper should be viewed as a working document inviting readers to engage in dialogue and to consider lines of enquiry that might enable us to better understand the complex and uncertain world of the physical educator.
The 'socio-moral' dimension of physical education: A critical review.
Andrew Theodoulides - Brighton University
Kathleen Armour - Brunel University
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This paper analyses the ways in which Physical Education (PE) is implicated in pupils' personal, social and moral development. Drawing upon historical literature, particularly government publications, it argues that the lack of critical debate and conceptual clarity in this area has been unhelpful for teachers and for the PE profession. Tellingly, statements from current government publications seem to echo those made over 100 years ago. There are numerous examples: The Clarendon Report (1864) noted that team games were important for their role in the development of 'character', a sentiment which seems remarkably similar to those implicit in recent National Curriculum Physical Education (NCPE) documents and others (DFE and WO, 1995, DNH, 1995). For children educated in state elementary schools during the first half of this century, physical education took the form of 'drill' (BoE, 1902, 1904); which, it was believed, fostered desirable aspects of 'character'. However, although drill is no longer taught, successive policy documents have continued to highlight the role that PE, particularly Team Games, plays in fostering aspects of character. This is expressed variously as the development of 'moral qualities' (BoE, 1909), the need for 'social training' (BoE, 1919), or a role in 'personal development' (DES, 1972). The Education Reform Act (DES, 1988) defined pupils' spiritual, moral, cultural and physical development as the focus of education, and these dimensions have been embraced in NCPE (DES and WO, 1995). Yet, the question remains: if, what might be cautiously termed, 'socio-moral' (Miller et al, 1997) outcomes are to be an explicit part of physical education teaching and assessment, how are teachers to interpret this and upon what are they to base their planning? In this paper, drawing upon historical evidence, it is argued that critical debate about the role of physical education in socio-moral education is long overdue.
Developing an educational rather than a training enterprise: A partnership of meaning and provision.
Mike Waring - University of Durham, England
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In order to develop an increasingly reflective and developmental experience for all those agents and institutions involved in a predominantly school-based ITE, does everyone need to able to appreciate the dynamic nature and collaborative production of pedagogical subject knowledge within their particular context? An exploratory research project investigated the processes by which mentors, schools, trainees and a higher education institution collaborated within a specific partnership programme to facilitate the development and effectiveness of the trainee PE teacher and mentor when engaged in learning to teach. Reflection, especially in a subject specific manner, along with a critical challenge to the nature of knowledge of teaching and the structure of the curricula presented in school and university, has to be a part of a collaboratively written central framework of investigation, questioning and review for the trainees and mentors to follow. This will increasingly happen when; trainees and mentors accept that such knowledge and understanding is 'organic' and develops as experiences become fuller and more diverse.
Managing a department: The role of continued professional development in the career of a physical education teacher
Andrew Theodoulides
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The purpose of this paper is to outline the part Continued Professional Development (CPD) has played in my career so far, and in particular the contribution it has made to my work as a Head of PE. Continued Professional Development has been valuable in providing knowledge and understanding as a foundation for promotion, and will be discussed within the context of my career development. Before considering how it has affected my work as a manager, I will outline the role CPD played in helping me gain promotion. As a Head of Department I will discuss my experience in the post, the way in which CPD has contributed to my understanding of what it is that managers do, and how it has enabled me to develop some of the skills needed in order to be more effective in a management role.
Working towards a management role
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Upon entering the teaching profession, I had career aspirations which I perceived to be reflective of future 'age-status expectations' (Sikes, 1985, p.28), for example Head of Department, Senior Teacher and Deputy Head. These aspirations were put to the back of my mind as I came to terms with the prospect of teaching full time. During the first few years of teaching, all my energy and effort was put into developing class management strategies, subject knowledge and other essential 'tools of the trade'. It is with hindsight that I recognise this to be time well spent in providing a sound base upon which to later build management skills. Whilst not recognised as CPD at the time, the support and guidance received from more experienced colleagues, albeit informally, was extremely valuable in supporting my early career development. Success in subject teaching was a major focus of future promotion applications.
Having survived my first few years in full time teaching, the idea of promotion became a more realistic focus. Disappointingly, at no stage, either during my teacher training degree, or my first post, was I told what I could do that would be helpful in gaining promotion. Like many teachers, I had career aspirations, but no clear plan of how to achieve them (Sikes, 1985). Left to my own devices, I embarked upon a course of action which I felt would be of benefit to me in future career moves. In addition to my responsibilities as a main scale teacher (now CPS), I began to take on more responsibility, both within school, and outside, in the hope that when the time came for promotion, my commitment to the teaching profession would be recognised. As Lyons argues, the need to be seen to be willing is viewed as an important prerequisite to future promotion. 'If you're prepared to give up your time, it helps. The more time you put in with the children, the better it looks in the eyes of those who count' (cited in Ball, 1987, p.169). I took on more responsibility within the PE department, writing schemes and units of work, and volunteered to be part of whole school working parties. Saturday mornings were taken up running district football teams, evenings and holidays helping out with the county side. In the summer, it was district athletics.
As an aspiring Head of Department the opportunity to engage in some organised formal CPD came in the form of one-day INSET courses run by Education Consultants, which were centered around the theme of 'Managing an Effective Department'. The suggestion, by a deputy-head responsible for In-service Training (INSET), that I should attend such a course, was the first sign that my professional development was being considered outside of the PE Department. The one-day course that I attended covered a range of issues such as curriculum design, managing people, and development planning. Whilst providing a useful insight into the role of a Head of Department, the shortness of this course only touched briefly upon the extent of a manager's role. However, with all the experience I had gained, I felt ready to embark upon the next stage of my career development. With no long-term career plan, promotion was to be determined by chance and opportunity (Ball, 1987).
Moving Into Management
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Having gained a Head of Boys PE post in a north-west London comprehensive, the initial satisfaction and euphoria at becoming a Head of Department carried me through my first year in the post as I began to learn the skills required in my new role. The low status of PE in schools is well-documented (Armour and Jones, 1998, Evans, Penny and Davies, 1996). In addition to managing the day to day running of the PE Department, much of my work at faculty and whole school level, centered around protecting the quality of the physical education which pupils were given. The constant struggle to fight the professional and personal interests of other staff, each of whom felt that their ideas were the best way forward (Fullen, 1997), was a constant focus of my work. The way in which I set about doing this reflected my lack of knowledge and understanding, but more crucially, my lack of experience, of the role of a manager. Whitaker (1998) states that, 'The essence of management work is conducting a never ending series of interactions with others' (p.76). It soon became apparent to me how poorly prepared I was for some aspects of the role, in particular my 'interactions' with staff at higher management level. Hargie, Tourish and Hargie (1997) argue that in terms of INSET, managers need training courses that focus upon the development of inter-personal skills. With a lack of these skills, starting out in management was a process of trial and error, as I learned those strategies that were successful, and those that were not. Duignan (1989) argues that it is this 'process of reflection on action which leads to growth and learning' (p.77) as a manager.
A good example of how my management skills developed through practical experience is highlighted in the way in which I used to argue for resources. As a new manager, I felt that the most effective way in which to put forward any new ideas was to appear strong and determined. Fullen (1997) argues that the use of forceful argument in implementing changes in policy and practice is not effective. My lack of success using this strategy was soon recognised. It was only once I had begun to consider the complex way in which power relations work within the decision making structure of the school (Morrison, 1998), that I was able to develop a greater understanding of how to become a more effective manager. It was through further study that I was able to gain this insight into the way in which decisions are made.
Further study has been a valuable source of CPD, but it has been fraught with difficulty. The combination of holding down a full time teaching post, being a husband, father and financing further study, has at times been a struggle. This has been compounded by the 'hit and miss' nature of school support. As a head of Department in two schools during my further study,_the nature of support offered was different. Whilst both Headteachers commented upon their support towards my further study, one could offer no further assistance, whilst the other contributed towards the payment of course fees, and granted me time off in order to undertake research. The lack of support offered by the first school reflected the tight constraints under which the school functioned.
In terms of my career plans beyond managing a PE department, much like that which had gone before, I was left to select of opportunities in order to enhance my professional development. However, whether a sign of the increased work load on teachers, greater consideration of CPD, or the fact that I had management experience, as a Head of PE, the opportunities for becoming involved in whole school development issues were more evident. Again, Lyons' contention that the need to be seen to be willing to take on extra duties (Lyons cited in Ball, 1987, p.169), although not explicitly ever mentioned, was regarded as valuable experience for future promotion. In considering a move to Higher Education, I was left to select the opportunities which I felt best suited this pathway. With the help of colleagues working within a Higher Education institution, who were aware of my career plans, I was able to gain the necessary experience in order to achieve this move.
Conclusion
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Despite feeling ready to move into management, my early experience did not prepare me very well for some aspects of a manager's work. As a new manager I lacked the skills needed to deal effectively with staff, particularly colleagues in more senior positions. The one-day INSET courses that I attended have been valuable in providing an insight into the role of a manager, but on reflection, it is only through experience that I have been able to build up a repertoire of skills needed to be more effective in this role. Having developed management skills in my first post as a Head of Department, I was able to start again, with greater knowledge, understanding and experience when moving to a bigger department in another school.
For me, the concept of CPD is very much part of promotion and career development. With career aspirations, but no overall career plan, it has been difficult to map out the CPD requirements that I need. However, the benefit of this is that it provides me with the flexibility to consider different options when they arise, such as my move into Higher Education. Throughout my career, I have always received support and encouragement in the quest for CPD, but this has been inconsistently applied across the schools in which I have worked. With the experience I have gained, I feel reasonably qualified in order to determine my future career developments. What I would have benefited from, and would benefit from now, is formal consultation with someone who could suggest further career developments, and how to set about achieving them.
References
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Armour, K. M. and Jones, R. L. (1998). Physical Education Teachers' Lives and Careers, London, Falmer Press.
Ball, S. J., (1987). The Micro-Politics of the School: Towards a theory of school organisation, London, Routledge.
Bennet, C., (1985). Paints, Pots or Promotion: Art Teachers' Attitudes Towards Their Careers, in Ball, S. J. and Goodson, I. F. (Eds.) Teachers' Lives and Careers, Lewes, Falmer Press.
Evans, J., Penney, D. and Davies, B. (1996). Back to the Future: Education Policy and Physical Education, in Armstrong, N. (Ed.). New Directions in Physical Education: Change and Innovation, London, Cassell.
Duignan, P. A., (1989). Reflective management: the key to quality leadership, in Riches, C. and Morgan, C (Eds.) Human Resource Management in Education, Milton Keynes, Open University Press.
Fullen, M., (1997). Planning, doing and coping with change, in Harris, A., Bennett, N. and Preedy, M. (Eds.). Organisational effectiveness and improvement in education, Buckingham, Open University Press.
Hargie, C., Tourish, D. and Hargie, O. (1997). Managers Communicating, in Crawford, M., Kydd, L. and Riches, C. (Eds.) Leadership and teams in educational management, Buckingham, Open University Press.
Morrison, K. (1998). Management Theories for Educational Change, London, Paul Chapman.
Sikes, P. J., (1985). The Life Cycle of the Teacher, in Ball, S. J. and Goodson, I. F. (Eds.) Teachers' Lives and Careers, Lewes, Falmer Press.
Whitaker, P. (1998). Managing Schools, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Copyright sociology of sport online, 1999
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